2. Universidad Cardenal Herrera-CEU

In this paper, the consequences of the lack of definition of so-called hybrid threats is explored. Special attention was paid to the importance of the work already completed by the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) and the European Union (EU) regarding the ever evolving types of actions associated with hybrid threats in the so called grey zone. The latter can be thought of as activities undertaken by one state that are harmful to another, albeit not legal acts of war, sometimes referred to as a malevolent manifestation of the concept of peace. The vastly different experiences of democratic and authoritarian states acting in the grey zone was also examined. In addition, the law applicable to hybrid threats was studied to determine if the legal framework is sufficiently adapted to repel state-sponsored and nonstate- sponsored hybrid threats. In addition, the use of the European Convention on Human Rights in the struggle against hybrid threats in Europe and the limits to how state parties can react to hybrid threats established by this treaty was analysed. Lastly, the international rules of attribution of responsibility and difficulties associated with their application with respect to hybrid threats was considered. This article is structured in two parts. The first part explores the difficulty of defining hybrid threats, while the second presents the legal framework used to counter such threats, both at the international and European levels.

Tras la aparición de la gestación subrogada como práctica transnacional, las instituciones tanto comunitarias como de Derecho internacional privado comienzan a cuestionarse los problemas que plantea su práctica a nivel mundial, dando lugar a multitud de estudios generados por dichas instituciones con la finalidad por un lado de plantearse su legalidad y por otro de dar solución a los abusos que sobre las mujeres y los niños genera dicha práctica. Destacan las aportaciones de la Conferencia de Derecho internacional privado de La Haya, que viene realizando trabajos en orden a crear un convenio multilateral entre estados que cree puentes entre ellos a los efectos de evitar los inconvenientes que la gestación subrogada genera y, por otro lado, la implicación sobre la materia que está asumiendo el Comité de los Derechos del Niño, que viene instando a los estados a definir claramente su postura acerca de esta situación y a tomar medidas para la protección de los menores nacidos a través de esta práctica tratando de evitar el tráfico de niños como consecuencia de la misma. / Following the emergence of surrogacy as a transnational practice, both the European community and private international law institutions begin to question the problems posed by its practice at the global level, resulting in a multitude of studies generated by these institutions for the purpose of to consider their legality and on the other to solve the abuses that women and children generate in this practice. They emphasize the contributions of the Hague Conference of Private International Law, which is carrying out work in order to create a multilateral agreement between states that creates bridges between them in order to avoid the inconveniences that the surrogacy generates and, on the other hand, the involvement of the Committee on the Rights of the Child on the matter, which urges states to clearly define their position on this situation and to take measures for the protection of children born through this practice by trying to avoid Trafficking in children as a result of it.

En un momento de crisis para la Unión Europea, una manera de consolidar su liderazgo como actor global sería a través de la puesta en práctica de los valores y principios que la fundaron y que pretende exportar en sus relaciones con otros Estados. Es necesario ser coherente con sus Tratados fundacionales y utilizar las capacidades de las que ya dispone. La doctrina de la responsabilidad de proteger se plantea como una opción para afirmar a la Unión Europea como líder normativo mundial y reforzar la prevención de conflictos luchando. Para ello se hace un análisis de sus misiones PCSD. / It is a rough time for the European Union (EU). A way of consolidating its leadership as a global actor would be through the implementation of its values and founding principles that it aims to export in its relations with another States. The EU has to be coherent with its Treaties and use the capabilities that it already has. The responsibility to protect is a possible solution for strengthening the role of the EU as a normative power while maintaining the international peace and security through the prevention of conflicts. A way of proving if the EU is on the right path to become a civil power is through the analysis of its CSDP missions.

Partiendo de la base empírica e irrefutable de que la violencia contra la mujer y la niña es una lacra universal y que, además, no remite con el avance de la sociedad, el trabajo hace un recorrido sobre la evolución y las medidas internacionales adoptadas para acabar con este tipo de violencia, tanto las de prevención como las de sanción y reparación de los daños. A continuación, el trabajo se adentra en el análisis de las causas estructurales identificadas. Por Naciones Unidas de la violencia contra la mujer y la niña, entre ellas, el patriarcado, la cultura y la inacción del Estado.