2. Universidad Cardenal Herrera-CEU

We used anonymous questionnaires to assess the hygienic and sanitary aspects of game meat self-consumption in Eastern Spain as the first step towards a health risk assessment. The survey yielded 472 valid interviews from active hunters. The maximum possible score was 65 points (average 29 8; range 1–52). Most participants were men (95%), but women achieved significantly better scores (p = 0.003). Hunters above 65 years old scored significantly lower results than younger groups (p = 0.007). The score increased with the educational level (p = 0.046). A 92% of the collaborators consumed game meat. Veterinary inspection and freezing were irregular among the participants. Most respondents declared carrying the animals in their personal vehicles. Of the dressing process, 61% of sites were outdoors, 68% of the participants declared using specific knives, 64% used the same clothes as in the field, and 42% used disposable gloves. The most usual way to dispose of the remains was garbage containers (41%); offal abandonment in the field was 33%, and 13% fed domestic animals using the remains. We conclude that public health authorities should increase their interest in the self-consumption of game meat. Clear guidelines about domestic dressing facilities and hygienic habits should be published, these being essential when looking for synergies with hunter associations.

Fish not only harbor host-specific species/genotypes of Cryptosporidium, but also species like zoonotic C. parvum or anthroponotic C. hominis, which can pose a risk for fish consumers. This study aims to investigate fish cryptosporidiosis in an important aquaculture and fishery area of the Western Mediterranean (Comunidad Valenciana, Spain). We analyzed 404 specimens belonging to the following three groups: cultivated fish (N = 147), wild synanthropic fish (N = 147) and wild fish from extractive fisheries (N = 110). Nested PCR targeting the 18S rRNA gene, followed by sequencing and phylogenetic analysis, were performed. Positive isolates were also amplified at the actin gene locus. An overall prevalence of 4.2% was detected, with the highest prevalence in the synanthropic group (6.1%). C. molnari was identified in thirteen specimens from seven different host species. Zoonotic C. ubiquitum was detected in two European sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax). One isolate similar to C. scophthalmi was detected in a cultivated meagre (Argyrosomus regius), and one isolate, highly divergent from all the Cryptosporidium species/genotypes described, was identified from a synanthropic round sardinella (Sardinella aurita). This study contributes to increasing the molecular data on fish cryptosporidiosis, expanding the range of known hosts for C. molnari and identifying, for the first time, zoonotic C. ubiquitum in edible marine fishes, pointing out a potential health risk.

In recent decades, worldwide fish consumption has increased notably worldwide. Despite the health benefits of fish consumption, it also can suppose a risk because of fishborne diseases, including parasitic infections. Global changes are leading to the emergence of parasites in new locations and to the appearance of new sources of transmission. That is the case of the zoonotic protozoa Cryptosporidium spp., Giardia duodenalis, and Toxoplasma gondii; all of them reach aquatic environments and have been found in shellfish. Similarly, these protozoa can be present in other aquatic animals, such as fish. The present review gives an overview on these three zoonotic protozoa in order to understand their potential presence in fish and to comprehensively revise all the evidences of fish as a new potential source of Cryptosporidium spp., Giardia duodenalis, and Toxoplasma gondii transmission. All of them have been found in both marine and freshwater fishes. Until now, it has not been possible to demonstrate that fish are natural hosts for these protozoa; otherwise, they would merely act as mechanical transporters. Nevertheless, even if fish only accumulate and transport these protozoa, they could be a “new” source of infection for people.