1. Investigación

Los populismos y las derivas iliberales de algunos gobiernos ponen en riesgo el funcionamiento constitucionalmente adecuado de las instituciones y organismos encargados de controlar a la mayoría. Ello acaba por debilitar la democracia, entendida como democracia representativa y constitucional, así como la idea de Constitución como límite al poder. En los últimos años asistimos a una erosión gradual de principios e instituciones del Estado constitucional y democrático de Derecho que afecta a los checks and balances entre poderes y también al pluralismo político. Las corrientes populistas e iliberales abogan por dar primacía a los poderes con legitimidad popular, sobre los órganos de control político y judicial, los cuales son considerados como obstaculizadores de la voluntad popular. Pero en realidad instrumentalizan igualmente las instituciones parlamentarias y colonizan los órganos de control, socavando su independencia. Los autores de esta obra reflexionan acerca de estas amenazas. Analizan los déficits del diseño normativo y del funcionamiento de los contrapoderes e instrumentos contramayoritarios. También pasan revista a la eficacia de los límites provenientes de las instituciones europeas e internacionales, así como de la ciudadanía en el ejercicio de sus derechos. El libro plantea propuestas de mejora de la composición y funcionamiento de los contrapoderes y de las relaciones entre instituciones y de estas con la ciudadanía. Todo ello con la pretensión de hacer frente a esas tendencias populistas e iliberales antes de que deriven en regímenes autoritarios.

En este capítulo, se analiza el rol de los Tribunales Constitucionales dentro del Estado Constitucional de Derecho; en particular, su funcionalidad política. Partiendo del reconocimiento de su valioso rol y de su innegable función política como guardianes de la Constitución, analiza las distintas fundamentaciones y formas de entender dicho rol político; concluye que éste proviene de la Constitución misma como documento de consenso que expresa la decisión política fundamental de la comunidad. Asimismo, expone que estos Altos Tribunales desempeñan una función pedagógica y de educación política constitucional. Se explora cómo su dimensión política influye en el desarrollo de la teoría jurídica de las instituciones constitucionales y de los derechos fundamentales, así como, en la emisión de directrices legislativas. Termina estableciendo unas consideraciones de cara evitar que se socave su importante función y se mantenga la legitimidad del control constitucional, de ese modo, se evite que discursos iliberales o populistas erosionen su autoridad.

Providing—and also not providing—public services to unlawful residents implies a certain cost for host societies, and both inclusion and exclusion involve localized renegotiations of fundamental rights, legitimate needs, and social membership. Based on original qualitative research data, this article compares how, why, and under which conditions irregular migrants are granted or denied access to healthcare services provided in London and Barcelona. From a multi-level perspective and by drawing on organization theory, I highlight key differences in how the responsible governments deal with the underlying contradictions and thereby either help or hinder effective policy implementation.

El objetivo de este artículo es analizar las líneas básicas que definen la intención y el desarrollo retórico del tratado Zelus Christi contra Iudaeos, Sarracenos et infideles, de Pedro de la Cavallería, escrito durante la segunda mitad del siglo XV en un contexto marcado de forma determinante por la Disputa de Tortosa (1413-1414).

Aim To comprehensively describe intellectual and executive functioning (EF) in people with dyskinetic cerebral palsy (DCP), by comparing their performance with that of: 1) age- and sex-matched typically developing controls (TDC); and 2) participants with spastic cerebral palsy (SCP) matched for age, sex, term/preterm and gross motor function classification system (GMFCS). Method This cross-sectional study was conducted by the University of Barcelona in collaboration with five institutions. Participants were people with DCP (n = 52; 24 females, median age 20.5 y: 5mo, interquartile range [IQR] = 13.75 y: 7mo; GMFCS I–V). As comparison groups, participants with SCP (n = 20; 10 females, median age = 20.5 y: 5.5mo, IQR = 13.75 y 9mo; GMFCS I–V) and TDC (n = 52; 24 females, median age = 20 y: 4mo, IQR = 12 y 7mo) were included. Intelligence and EF were assessed using common tests in all participants. Results Both CP groups had lower intelligence than TDC and performed poorer in almost all EF tasks. Intelligence was higher in DCP than SCP (z = −2.51, p = 0.01). Participants with DCP also performed significantly better in goal-setting tasks (z = 2.27, p = 0.03) and information processing (z = −2.54, p = 0.01) than those with SCP. Conclusion People with DCP present lower general intellectual functioning and poorer EF across multiple domains than typically developing controls. People with DCP have higher general intellectual functioning and better EF than people with SCP when levels of motor severity are similar.

Purpose: To characterise brain lesions in dyskinetic cerebral palsy (DCP) using the semi-quantitative scale for structural MRI (sqMRI) and to investigate their relationship with motor, communication and cognitive function. Materials and methods: Thirty-nine participants (19 females, median age 21y) with DCP were assessed in terms of motor function, communication and a variety of cognitive domains. Whole-head magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) was per formed including T1-MPRAGE, T2 turbo spin echo (axial plane), and fluid attenuated inversion recovery images (FLAIR). A child neurologist visually assessed images for brain lesions and scored these using the sqMRI. Ordinal, Poisson and binomial negative regression models identified which brain lesions accounted for clinical outcomes. Results: Brain lesions were most frequently located in the ventral posterior lateral thalamus and the frontal lobe. Gross (B = 0.180, p < .001; B = 0.658, p < .001) and fine (B = 0.136, p = .003; B = 0.540, p < .001) motor function were associated with global sqMRI score and parietal involvement. Communication functioning was associated with putamen involvement (B = 0.747, p < .028). Intellectual functioning was associated with global sqMRI score and posterior thalamus involvement (B = −0.018, p < .001; B = −0.192, p < .001). Selective attention was associated with global sqMRI score (B = −0.035, p < .001), parietal (B = −0.063, p = .023), and corpus callosum involvement (B = −0.448, p < .001). Visuospatial and visuoperceptive abil ities were associated with global sqMRI score (B = −0.078, p = .007) and medial dorsal thalamus involvement (B = −0.139, p < .012), respectively. Conclusions: Key clinical outcomes in DCP are associated with specific observable brain lesions as indexed by a simple lesion scoring system that relies only on standard clinical MRI.

Background Cerebral palsy (CP) is a disorder of motor function often accompanied by cognitive impairment. There is a paucity of research focused on cognition in dyskinetic CP and on the potential effect of related factors. Aim To describe the cognitive profile in dyskinetic CP and to assess its relationship with motor function and associated impairments. Method Fifty-two subjects with dyskinetic CP (28 males, mean age 24 y 10 mo, SD 13 y) and 52 typically-developing controls (age- and gender-matched) completed a comprehensive neuropsychological assessment. Gross Motor Function Classification System (GMFCS), Communication Function Classification System (CFCS) and epilepsy were recorded. Cognitive performance was compared between control and CP groups, also according different levels of GMFCS. The relationship between cognition, CFCS and epilepsy was examined through partial correlation coefficients, controlling for GMFCS. Results Dyskinetic CP participants performed worse than controls on all cognitive functions except for verbal memory. Milder cases (GMFCS I) only showed impairment in attention, visuoperception and visual memory. Participants with GMFCS II–III also showed impairment in language-related functions. Severe cases (GMFCS IV–V) showed impairment in intelligence and all specific cognitive functions but verbal memory. CFCS was associated with performance in receptive language functions. Epilepsy was related to performance in intelligence, visuospatial abilities, visual memory, grammar comprehension and learning. Conclusion Cognitive performance in dyskinetic CP varies with the different levels of motor impairment, with more cognitive functions impaired as motor severity increases. This study also demonstrates the relationship between communication and epilepsy and cognitive functioning, even controlling for the effect of motor severity.

Dyskinetic cerebral palsy (CP) has long been associated with basal ganglia and thalamus lesions. Recent evidence further points at white matter (WM) damage. This study aims to identify altered WM pathways in dyskinetic CP from a standardized, connectome-based approach, and to assess structure-function relationship in WM pathways for clinical outcomes. Individual connectome maps of 25 subjects with dyskinetic CP and 24 healthy controls were obtained combining a estructural parcellation scheme with whole-brain deterministic tractography. Graph theoretical metrics and the network-based statistic were applied to compare groups and to correlate WM state with motor and cognitive performance. Results showed a widespread reduction of WM volume in CP subjects com pared to controls and a more localized decrease in degree (number of links per node) and fractional anisotropy (FA), comprising parieto-occipital regions and the hippocampus. However, supramarginal gyrus showed a significantly higher degree. At the network level, CP subjects showed a bilateral path way with reduced FA, comprising sensorimotor, intraparietal and fronto-parietal connections. Gross and fine motor functions correlated with FA in a pathway comprising the sensorimotor system, but gross motor also correlated with prefrontal, temporal and occipital connections. Intelligence correlated with FA in a network with fronto-striatal and parieto-frontal connections, and visuoperception was related to right occipital connections. These findings demonstrate a disruption in structural brain connectivity in dyskinetic CP, revealing general involvement of posterior brain regions with relative preservation of pre frontal areas. We identified pathways in which WM integrity is related to clinical features, including but not limited to the sensorimotor system.

Purpose Quality of life (QOL) is a key outcome for people with cerebral palsy (CP), and executive functioning is an important predictor of QOL in other health-related conditions. Little is known about this association in CP or about its neural substrate. We aim to analyze the influence of executive functioning (including cognitive flexibility) as well as that of other psychological, motor, communication and socioeconomic variables on QOL and to identify neuroanatomical areas related to QOL in adolescents and adults with CP. Methods Fifty subjects diagnosed with dyskinetic CP (mean age 25.96 years) were recruited. Their caregivers completed the primary caregiver proxy report version of the CP QOL-Teen questionnaire. Motor status, communication, IQ, four executive function domains, anxiety/depression and socioeconomic status were evaluated. Correlations and multiple linear regression models were used to relate CP QOL domains and total score to these variables. Thirty-six participants underwent an MRI assessment. Correlations were examined between cortical thickness and CP QOL total score and between cortical thickness and variables that might predict the CP QOL total score. Results Executive functions predict scores in four domains of CP QOL (General well-being and participation, Communication and physical health, Family health and Feelings about functioning) in the regression model. Among the cognitive domains that comprise executive function, only cognitive flexibility measured in terms of performance on the Wisconsin card sorting test (WCST) predicts the CP QOL total score. Monthly income, fine motor functioning and communication ability predict scores on the domains Access to services and Family Health, Feelings about functioning and School well-being, respectively. The clusters resulting from the correlation between cortical thickness and both CP QOL total score and WCST performance overlapped in the posterior cingulate and precuneus cortices. Conclusions Cognitive flexibility predicts proxy report CP QOL-Teen total score in dyskinetic CP. This relationship has its anatomical correlate in the posterior cingulate and precuneus cortices.

Dyskinetic cerebral palsy (CP) is one of the most disabling motor types of CP and has been classically associated with injury to the basal ganglia and thalamus. Although cognitive dysfunction is common in CP, there is a paucity of published quantitative analyses investigating the relationship between white matter (WM) microstructure and cognition in this CP type. Aims This study aims (1) to compare brain WM microstructure between people with dyskinetic CP and healthy controls, (2) to identify brain regions where WM microstructure is related to intelligence and (3) to identify brain regions where WM microstructure is related to executive function in people with dyskinetic CP and (4) to identify brain regions where the correlations are different between controls and people with CP in IQ and executive functions. Patients and methods Thirty-three participants with dyskinetic CP (mean ± SD age: 24.42 ± 12.61, 15 female) were age and sex matched with 33 controls. Participants underwent a comprehensive neuropsychological battery to assess intelligence quotient (IQ) and four executive function domains (attentional control, cognitive flexibility, goal setting and information processing). Diffusion weighted MRI scans were acquired at 3T. Voxel-based whole brain groupwise analyses were used to compare fractional anisotropy (FA) and of the CP group to the matched controls using a general lineal model. Further general linear models were used to identify regions where white matter FA correlated with IQ and each of the executive function domains. Results White matter FA was significantly reduced in the CP group in all cerebral lobes, predominantly in regions connected with the parietal and to a lesser extent the temporal lobes. There was no significant correlation between IQ or any of the four executive function domains and WM microstructure in the control group. In participants with CP, lower IQ was associated with lower FA in all cerebral lobes, predominantly in locations that also showed reduced FA compared to controls. Attentional control, goal setting and information processing did not correlate with WM microstructure in the CP group. Cognitive flexibility was associated with FA in regions known to contain connections with the frontal lobe (such as the superior longitudinal fasciculus and cingulum) as well as regions not known to contain tracts directly connected with the frontal lobe (such as the posterior corona radiata, posterior thalamic radiation, retrolenticular part of internal capsule, tapetum, body and splenium of corpus callosum). Conclusion The widespread loss in the integrity of WM tissue is mainly located in the parietal lobe and related to IQ in dyskinetic CP. Unexpectedly, executive functions are only related with WM microstructure in regions containing fronto-cortical and posterior cortico-subcortical pathways, and not being specifically related to the state of fronto-striatal pathways which might be due to brain reorganization. Further studies of this nature may improve our understanding of the neurobiological bases of cognitive impairments after early brain insult.