1. Investigación

In Guatemala, three million people are at risk of contracting cutaneous leishmaniosis, primarily in the northern regions. Despite this alarming epidemiological situation, few faunistic studies of phlebotomine sand flies have been conducted in this country, which is the most populous in Central America. An entomological survey of phlebotomine sand flies was carried out from March to September, 2018 in rural, mountainous, and forested areas of six northern Guatemalan departments with active transmission of human leishmaniosis: Petén, Huehuetenango, Quiché, Alta Verapaz, Izabal, and El Progreso. CDC miniature light traps were deployed in and around homes with recent cases of leishmaniosis in children under 10 years of age. A total of 2,605 specimens of sand flies were captured and identified, belonging to three subtribes, nine genera, and 14 species (13 of which were able to be determined), with a balanced sex ratio of 0.95 males per each female. Lutzomyia longipalpis was the most abundant species in the survey, accounting for 62.61% of the total catches; however, this species was restricted to El Progreso and Huehuetenango, with Huehuetenango having the highest capture percentage (55.54%). This vector was predominantly found outdoors, mostly in extra-domicile areas (62.29%). The male/female ratio for this species was 1.94. This study, and the entomological data we present, can aid in enhancing vector control interventions in these northern departments, thereby decreasing the incidence of leishmaniosis in humans.

Nematocera are a suborder of Diptera which historically influenced human history more than any other arthropod group. Four families show a hematophagous behaviour, one being solenophagous (Culicidae), feeding directly on blood vessels, and three being telmophagous (Ceratopogonidae, Psychodidae, and Simuliidae), feeding on blood which pools at the site where their mouthparts have formed a laceration. Although mosquitoes rank first in importance, the telmophagous are also of great interest. Objectives: to update the status of these nematocerans through a transdisciplinary approach, reviewing the main characteristics of each family, the situation of the main vector-borne diseases transmitted by them in the country, especially during the 21st century, and the most relevant species or species groups from a medical and veterinary perspective. Methods: a literature search of databases was conducted and supplemented by browsing specialized journals and citation searching. Results were reviewed and filtered. Results: to date, 84 species of biting midges (Ceratopogonidae), 13 species of sand flies (Psychodidae), and 53 species of black flies (Simuliidae) have been reported in Spain. Culicoides imicola and the Obsoletus complex stand out as the most important biting midges, as they are incriminated in the transmission of bluetongue and Schmallemberg virus; Phlebotomus perniciosus and Phlebotomus ariasi are the vectors of Leishmania infantum; and Simulium erythrocephalum and the Ornatum complex cause the greater part of nuisance and bites to humans in Spain. Conclusions: there is a need to increase research capacity in Spain in order to address several health challenges arising from the presence of telmophagous Nematocera in particular, and of blood-sucking atropods in general.

Leishmaniosis is considered the most important neglected tropical disease caused by protozoan parasites in Southern European countries such as Spain. Its main etiological agent is Leishmania infantum while Phlebotomus perniciosus and Phlebotomus ariasi are the main vectors in the country. During the first half of July 2021, an entomological survey was conducted in a dog shelter and its surroundings in the municipality of Toledo (Castilla-La Mancha). Sand fly sticky traps, made of A5-size white paper coated with castor oil, were placed in six different environments inside a 200 m (the mean flight distance of Phlebotomus sp.) radius from the animal shelter. Sticky traps were set for eleven consecutive trapping nights in each site. A total of 356 phlebotomine sand flies belonging to four species in two genera were identified. These species and their abundance in the traps were: Sergentomyia minuta (70.2%), Phlebotomus perniciosus (25.9%), Phlebotomus sergenti (2.8%), and Phlebotomus papatasi (1.1%). The following list gives a breakdown of the abundance of phlebotomine sand flies found in various locations: a burrow (45.1%), a maintenance warehouse (21.3%), a holm oak´s tree hole (15.6%), an abandoned cattle barnyard (10.3%), a dog kennels area (4.3%), and surroundings of a feral feline colony (3.3%). Phlebotomus papatasi, an anthropophagic species, was only found in crevices of the maintenance warehouse. Although dogs are considered the main Leishmania reservoir, this preliminary research shows the effect of different micro-environments in the surroundings of animal shelters on sand fly abundance and diversity, and the importance that other reservoirs could play as most documented captures were associated with glires (orders Rodentia and Lagomorpha) rather than dogs and cats.

Phlebotomine sand flies (Diptera: Phlebotominae) are the principal vectors of Leishmania spp. (Kinetoplastida: Trypanosomatidae). In Central Europe, Phlebotomus mascittii is the predominant species, but largely understudied. To better understand factors driving its current distribution, we infer patterns of genetic diversity by testing for signals of population expansion based on two mitochondrial genes and model current and past climate and habitat suitability for seven post-glacial maximum periods, taking 19 climatic variables into account. Consequently, we elucidate their connections by environmental-geographical network analysis. Most analyzed populations share a main haplotype tracing back to a single glacial maximum refuge area on the Mediterranean coasts of South France, which is supported by network analysis. The rapid range expansion of Ph. mascittii likely started in the early mid-Holocene epoch until today and its spread possibly followed two routes. The first one was through northern France to Germany and then Belgium, and the second across the Ligurian coast through present-day Slovenia to Austria, toward the northern Balkans. Here we present a combined approach to reveal glacial refugia and post-glacial spread of Ph. mascittii and observed discrepancies between the modelled and the current known distribution might reveal yet overlooked populations and potential further spread.

For a better understanding of the transmission cycles of mosquito-borne diseases, it is essential to explore the species composition and population dynamics, mainly during their peak abundance period. These investigations do not normally include peri-urban areas, despite their significant epidemiological interest. To address these gaps, an entomological survey was carried out in 2016 and 2017 in three aquatic ecosystems located on the outskirts of the city of Logroño, in northern Spain: the Iregua River and La Grajera (La Rioja) and Las Cañas Reservoirs (Navarra). Mosquitoes were captured using BG-Sentinel traps baited with CO2 and BG-lure, as well as through the human landing collection method. In total, 6793 mosquito specimens were captured, representing 24 taxa within six genera. A specific PCR based on the ITS2 gene was used to differentiate members of the Anopheles claviger complex, and all individuals were identified as An. claviger sensu stricto. La Grajera had the most diverse culicid fauna, with 19 taxa, followed by Las Cañas (n = 15) and the Iregua River (n = 13). The composition and abundance of Culicidae varied across the aquatic ecosystem. We observed that the different hydrological management practices of each environment could play a key role in determining the abundance of mosquito genera. The overall risk of mosquito bites in the study area is expected to be relatively low and will depend on the freshwater ecosystem and the time of year.