and materializes in individuals’ daily lives who recognise themselves in it: “popular culture as a place from which to think about the here and the now” (Martín Barbero, 1984, p. 81).

An example of the above are the first references to drug trafficking through the stories and songs from the Colombian Carribean through which the anecdotal extravagances of the burgeoning drug trafficking captivated local audiences. The Colombian media were discreet about it, due to the degree of penetration the phenomenon had in society. This discretion meant that it almost went unnoticed, drug traffickers were only accepted when their might was shown through terrorism. However, their presence was constant from the beginning in the poorest neighbourhoods in different cities, where the heads of these organisations helped the population, thus creating an image of benefactors. On the contradictory image of the drug trafficking trade as a villain or a savour, Sánchez states:

“A set of habits that came to form […] a more complex structure: the social institution of drug trafficking, which through different legitimacy mechanisms and domination managed to position this group of bandits ‘for the rule of law’, although popular heroes in public opinion” (Sánchez, 2009: 92).

Drug trafficking brought terrorism to the cities and became a new form of violence in a Colombia that had already become accustomed to it in rural areas. Beltrán (2006) highlights how the conflict took place in the countryside: “in most rural areas the violence did not cease until practically 1972… the confrontation between paramilitaries and guerillas in the rural setting… one of the main problems arising from the Colombian rural problem now is displacement” (2006: 2), demonstrating the constant impact of the conflict on rural populations.

Drug trafficking changed the targets of violence to the assassination of presidential candidates, ministers, prosecutors, journalists, the civilian population, among others. The methods also changed: car bombs, as well as airplanes, exploding in flight, the bombing of public buildings and newspaper headquarters 5, and hit men, which favoured spectacularity as an element that marked this period in the media with unspeakable images, this was also combined with the media practice of resorting to self-censorship to protect itself.

Pablo Escobar’s story has served as raw material for television series and films, 6 helping to create a myth around him. The period of drug trafficking is probably the chapter of violence in Colombia most covered by the international media since cartels’ terrorist acts created spectacular images and events, bringing the country into the international spotlight.

1.3. The spectacular, an essential element for the success of the messages: 21st century

The period of drug trafficking refocused the attention dedicated to the guerilla, whose organisations were in crisis due to the collapse of socialism from 1985. However, their new alliances with drug trafficking had enabled them to survive by obtaining other means of funding, as well as through the selective kidnapping of members of wealthy families or