Table 1. Manifest versus latent indications of Citizen Engagement

Source: created by the author based on the bibliography reviewed

The reference source of the authors who refer to engagement as carrying out political actions is Putnam (1993, 1995, 2000). For him, engagement is shown by attending public meetings, participating in labour strikes or protests, voting, trusting in government, participating in organizations and labour unions, professing a religion, as well as trusting the rest of the community (interpersonal trust) through participation in associations. In the same vein, Verba and Nie (1972: 56-63) identified Citizen Engagement with actions taken by citizens to stimulate their relationship with public authorities. Examples of this could be voting, dedicating personal time to campaign activities (including membership or work for political parties and organisations, as well as monetary donations), signing petitions, or contacting public officials (Verba and Nie, 1972).

On the other hand, authors who move away from this political vision and argue that engaged citizens demonstrate their commitment through public or manifest actions especially include Ekman and Amna (2012), and Adler and Goggin (2005). The former point out that donating money, participating in social projects such as “building schools or constructing potable water supply systems in developing countries, or caring for the environment either by recycling or organizing car pool groups to commute to work”, are all outstanding ways of expressing commitment (Ekman and Amna, 2012: 288). On the other hand, Adler and Goggin (2005: 241) also view Citizen Engagement as “activities carried out by common citizens who try to influence that which is of interest to others who are outside their own family and circle of close friends”, to which they add that “an active citizen participates in the life of the community in order to improve the conditions of others” (p. 241).