and assume that bullying will end; in fact, bullying is also more likely to occur after school through various platforms (Kernaghan & Elwood, 2013). Furthermore, compared to face-to-face ways of bullying, in the case of online bullying, it is much more difficult to draw the boundary lines between the role of victim, aggressor and spectator (Lampert & Donoso, 2012).

2.2. Sexual Messages

Children are using the Internet and mobile phones as part of their social interaction and sexual exploration (Lenhart, 2009; Livingstone et al., 2011). This practice has been called “sexting” (from the words sex and texting), and has been defined in various ways. One approach restricts the definition of sexting to the exchange of images via mobile phone. Lenhart defines sexting as “creating, sharing and disseminating sexually suggestive images of nudity or semi-nudity” of oneself or an acquaintance through mobile phones (2009, p. 2), thus excluding sexually suggestive text as well as the rest of the communication platforms. The EU Kids Online survey, on the other hand, adopted a more inclusive notion of sexting, which takes into account both images and text, and considers all forms of online communication beyond that of the mobile phone to fall within the definition of sexting (Livingstone et al., 2011).

The Pew Internet Study (Lenhart, 2009) identifies three basic assumptions of sexting at the moment when the exchange of sexual images occurs: (a) it is part of adolescent experimentation with sexual identity and intimacy even if its protagonists are not yet sexually active; (b) it occurs between two partners as part of a sexual relationship; (c) as a prologue to sexual activity between two people who do not yet have a relationship, but at least one of whom would like to have one. In fact, most sexting can be contextualized within a peer relationship as a form of “bargaining chip” in the relationship (Lenhart, 2009, p. 8). However, the specific nature of technology and the social availability of ICT can amplify the boundaries, meanings and audiences of sexting: images and texts exchanged within the context of a romantic relationship, via instant messaging (WhatsApp, Snapchat, etc.), or through social networks can be easily distributed, published in more online spaces, and therefore shared with wider audiences. Therefore, sexual messages can have unintended consequences and can become unpleasant or problematic experiences for some children. The above research maintains that the exchange of sexually explicit images, messages or invitations is linked to harassment and bullying, and therefore leads to a form of “sexual cyberbullying” (Kofoed & Ringrose, 2012; Ringrose, Gill, Livingstone, & Harvey, 2012).

2.3. Contact with strangers

One of the biggest sources of anxiety with regard to young peoples’ online communication is defined as ‘stranger danger’, or in other words, the idea that young people might meet someone through the Internet, be persuaded to contact that person offline, and end up being abused in a face-to-face encounter. In fact, previous research has suggested that “meeting strangers” can encompass diverse circumstances and experiences, and it cannot be assumed that these are universally problematic (Barbovschi, Marinescu, Velicu, Anca & Laszlo, 2012; Ito et al., 2009); at the same time, other previous studies have shown that the risk of being harmed in a face-to-face encounter with someone who has been met online is low (Livingstone et al., 2011).